LEARNING
Learning
occupies an important place in the school programs. All the efforts of the
teachers and parents are devoted to the learning of their children. An every
individual will be learning continuously one thing or the other by knowingly or
unknowingly, from birth till death. In simple terms we can explain the learning
as, “the change in behavior of the individual brought about by experience”.
Hence we can say learning is an enrichment of experience. Experience is
obtained by interaction of the environment with the organism. That is,
mathematically we can say.
LEARNING =
ORGANISM x ENVIRONMENT
Learning is a
complex process to understand this, let us understand the some of the
definitions given by psychologists and educationists.
Woodworth. R.S.
“Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual
(in any respect, good or bad) and makes his behavior and experiences different
from what that would otherwise have been”.
Gates and others:
“Learning is the
modification of behavior through experiences”.
Henry. P. Smith:
“Learning is the
acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviors
as the result of experience”.
Crow and Crow:
“Learning is the
acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things and it operates in an individual’s attempts to overcome obstacles or to
readjust to new situations. It represents progressive change in behavior. It
enables him to satisfy his interests to attain goals”.
M.L.BIGGE:
“Learning may be considered as a change in insights, behavior, perception,
motivation or a combination of these”.
From
the above definitions, we may conclude that – “Learning may be defined as any
relatively permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a result of experience
or practice”.
This
definition has three important elements, namely.
1.
Learning is a change in behavior.
2.
Change takes place through experiences or practice.
3.
Change must be relatively of permanent nature.
PURPOSES OF LEARNING
The purposes of
learning can be broadly classified into three categories. VIZ.
1.
ACQUISTION OF KNOWLEDGE: It includes perception, conception and
associative learning.
2.
ACQUISTION OF SKILLS: It includes writing, reading, art, drawing,
handwork, musical performance, verbal fluency and other which involves
sensory-motor process.
3.
ACQUISTION OF ATTITUDES AND IDEALS: It includes the behaviors that come under
affective domain.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING:
The
following are the characteristics of learning. Learning is growth – growth in
terms of physical and mental aspects.
1.
Learning is adjustment – It refers to intra and
inter-adjustment of the individual with the society.
2.
Learning is organizing experience.
3.
Learning is purposeful.
4.
Learning is intelligent.
5.
Learning is active.
6.
Learning is both individual and social.
7.
Learning is the product of environment.
8.
Learning is maturation.
9.
Learning is universal and continuous.
With help of the above diagram the learning process can be explained
as follows:
The individual
has motives or needs and therefore it makes the learner to be in the state of
readiness to respond.
1.
He meets learning situation or problem or barrier.
Based on his past experiences he tries to overcome the barricade.
2.
He interprets the situation with reference to his
goals in accordance with his needs.
3.
If he achieves success, he continuous to be in the
same line or he retrieves back.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
OF LEARNING:
1.
Who is to learn?
(Pupil)
2.
From whom to learn? (Teacher and environment)
3.
Why to learn?
(Aims of learning)
4.
What to learn?
(Acquisition of knowledge, skills etc)
5.
How to learn?
(Methodology)
6.
When to learn?
(Motivation)
7.
Where to learn?
(Class room, play field etc.)
To answer to
these questions that arise in teaching-learning process and to find suitable
solutions to these questions, classroom teacher should havethorough knowledge
about these facts.
FACTORS
AFFECTING LEARNING
There are various factors which influences
learning and the learning process. Among them, maturation; motivation;
attention and remembering or memories are the major factors, which influence
the learning.
MATURATION
Maturation is the natural process of growth
in the individual. It is also called readiness to learn. It proceeds regularly
within a wide range of environmental conditions. Special stimulus or training
is not required for it. Maturation and learning together make up the process of
development. They are said to be like two sides of the same coin. According to
Elizabeth Hurlock “maturation is the natural development of child’s inherited
traits both physical and mental”.
MATURATION AND LEARNING:-
Maturation is
growth, which takes place regularly in an individual without special condition
of stimulation, such as training and practice. For example, at a particular
age, all the children learn to walk or to talk or to do some other activity. They
show such growth even when their environmental conditions differ within a wide
range. Learning, on the other hand, is a change of behavior, which depends of
the stimuli provided by the environment. The child learns according to the
experience he gets and the environment in which he is placed. It involves
training and practice.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
OF MATURATION:
1.
We acknowledge the factor of maturation by fixing
the age for school entrance at about six years.
2.
Even with maturation some learning and practice are
necessary to achieve any learning. Maturation only enfolds potentialities, only
by training and exercise these potentialities can be made real.
3.
Learning is sometimes considered as complementary to
maturation. Learning and maturation have been called the two complimentary
developmental processes responsible for all behavior.
4.
It is not advisable to overburden children at the
early age as it may lead to maladjustment in later stage of development.
MOTIVATION
The word
motivation has been derived from the Latin word “moveer” which means to move.
Motivation gives both direction and intensity to human behavior. It is an
internal force, which accelerates a response of behavior.
C.F.SKINNER: - Motivation in school learning
involves arousing, persisting, sustaining and directing desirable behavior.
J.P.GUILFORD: - A motive is any particular
internal factor of condition that tends to initiate and sustain activity.
Motivation can be defined as the desires,
needs and interests that arouse or activate an organism and direct it towards a
specific goal. It is a dynamic and purposive, positive process. It includes
wide sets of factors, which stir up various drives and hungers in human beings.
FUNCIONS OF MOTIVATION:
1. Motives energize
and sustain the activity or behavior.
2. Motives help us
to be selective in our responses.
3. Motives give
direction to the behavior and regulate it.
4. Motivation
arouses and sustains interest in learning.
5. Motivation
provides the energy and accelerates the behavior of the learner.
6. Motivation releases
the tension and helps in satisfying the needs of the learner.
7. Motivation is
the internal condition or factor of learning.
8. Motivation leads
to self-actualization in learning.
A motive is a state within the individual,
which under appropriate circumstance initiates or regulates behavior in
relation to a goal (-Klausmeire).
Motives are inferences from behavior.
Motives help to make predictions about behavior. Motives act as a powerful
tool.
Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation or Natural Motivation:
It means, motivation due to inner instincts,
desires, and needs of a person. The individual who is intrinsically motivated,
perform an act because he finds interest within the activity. He is engaged in
learning something because he derives pleasure within the learning of that
thing.
Intrinsic motivation is directly concerned
with the human experiences and emotions like pain and pleasure and with the
instincts of hunger thirst and sexual urge.
A thirsty person feels an inward and natural
desire to get water. So, the cause is internal. This type has greater value. It
leads to better learning.
2. Extrinsic Motivation:
Here motivation from outside. This
motivation is because of some external stimulus. Here the individual does or
learns something not for its own sake, but as a means of obtaining desired
goals or getting some external reward. Working for a better grade or honour,
learning a skill to earn the level hood, receiving praise and blame, rewards
and punishment etc., all belong to this category.
The teacher motivates the children through
the judicious use of rewards, praise or punishment and gradually makes the
children realise that learning gives joy. Thus the teacher develops in
students’ greater interest in the learning activity.
Need refers to a condition of lack or deficiency in the organism.
Drive is a tendency initiated by shifts in
the physiological balance within the body is the sources of energy.
An incentive is something, which makes the
organism Intensify its search. It can be defined as an accessible intermediate
goal, which encourages further activity, by serving as reinforcement.
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF
MOTIVATING THE STUDENTS IN THE CLASSROOM:
Following are some of the techniques of
motivating the students, which a classroom teacher can adopt during
teaching-learning process. Here teacher can touch upon the extrinsic
motivational factors of the learners. They are as following:
1.
Providing attractive physical environment
conditions: i.e. making the classroom looks attractive for learning to take
place.
2.
Sublimation of innate impulses of the learner: i.e.
providing adequate provision for the learner to exhibit their innate impulses
during learning process so that it helps in learning.
3.
Stimulus variation by teacher: i.e. to avoid
monotonous way teaching, teacher can bring in vividness through his gestures,
change in speech pattern, movements, change in interactive style, etc.
4.
Providing reinforcement: i.e. reinforcement can be
provided through praise and blame on through rewards and punishment, or by
pleasure and pain.
5.
Providing experience of success.
6.
Providing competition and co-operation situations.
7.
Teacher’s own motivation and interest in teaching.
8.
Teacher can adopt different teaching skills by
keeping individual differences of the learners.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
OF MOTIVATION:
1.
The intrinsic motivation is more desirable and
enriching the environment for it can enhance it.
2.
Adopt positive methods of extrinsic motivation.
3.
The reinforcement to any learning should be
immediate.
4.
Over-motivation is bad.
5.
Teachers should understand abilities of the learner
and aim at developing their interests in the natural settings.
ATTENTION:
Attention is the
basic need for all successful teaching. It is the concentration of
consciousness upon one object/idea rather than the other. Consciousness is a
wider field, which includes both attention and inattention of the mind.
F.H.BRADLEY:- Attention is a complex of sensation and ideas.
E.B.TICHENER: The problem of attention centers in the fact
of sensible clearness.
M.C.DOUGALL: “Attention
is merely conation (acting) or striving considered from the point of view of
its effect on cognitive (knowing) process.”
B.DUMVILLE: “Attention
is the concentration of consciousness upon one object rather than upon
another.”
J.S.ROSS:
“Attention is a process of getting an
object of though clearly before the mind.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF
ATTENTION:
Attention is:-
1.
A form of activity of the mind
2.
It includes cognitive, affective and psychomotor
activities.
3.
It is selective
4.
It has a narrow range
5.
It increases the clearness of the stimulus
6.
It is dynamic in nature and moves from one
object/idea to another.
7.
It makes clear and vivid the objects which we attend
to
8.
It arouses interest in an individual to focus
concentration on a particular object to the exclusion of the others.
9.
It affects motor adjustment
10. It can be
developed and promoted.
TYPES OF ATTENTION
There are different types of Attention namely,
1. Involuntary attention.
2. Voluntary attention or deliberate attention.
3. Habitual attention
1. INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION/Non-volitional attention:
Involuntary attention is passive end free. It depends upon the striking qualities of the stimulus and the way in which the stimulus affects the person attending. It is given to an interesting object, as when a charming speaker hold us spell bound or when we open the door to find out who is shouting. In this type, attention comes spontaneously. No effort is needed to concentrate mental energy on a task. The mind does not exert. It comes in one account of interest.
Teacher musty try to elicit this type of attention.
E.g. The child sees the 'rainbow'by an instinct of curiosity. At times the attention is diverted towards some other activity without the conscious effort, may be against the will of the individual.
It does not
involve any effort on the part of the individual. The object automatically
calls for our attention.
2. VOLUNTARY ATTENTION or DELIBERATE ATTENTION/Volitional attention:
The attention is called volitional when it calls forth the exercise of will. This attention demands the conscious efforts on our part.
Attention is volitional when it is given to understanding objects, when it requires some struggle, effort of will, He is forced to attend. It may be against his inclination. It is not given whole heatedly. This type of attention is not conducive to proper learning.
For example, if the teacher makes the students to sit in the classroom even after the last period they will not be able to concentrate. The teacher must remember that in the classroom this type of attention that operates in the beginning, but the aim of the teacher should be make it effortless and in voluntary by making the lesson interesting. It is necessary for character building.
Voluntary attention is clearly related to interest, attitude and motivation which control our behaviour. Sometimes an individual will divert his attention towards a particular activity or situation deliberately. It is not diverted spontaneously, but after some struggle. For example, while sitting in a class, the students divert their attention towards the lecture even if it is not interesting, because they have to pass the examination.
It demands conscious effort on the part of
the individual.
3. HABITUAL ATTENTION:
This type of attention develops during the
course of our experience with several things; we get conditioned to attend to
certain stimuli.
Habits are acquired. These acquired havits or learned habits select the stimuli to which we have to focus our attention.
E.g. 1. An auto driver quickly notices a person seeking an auto for hire.
2. A shoeshine boy notices the shoes of the persons who pass before him.
In some situations, reaction to a stimulus or attending to a stimulus becomes a habit. So the individual will automatically divert his attention towards that stimulus. For example, a musician's attention will automatically be diverted towards the sound of music even if he is busily engaged in talking to somebody.
Attention of a devotee will be diverted towards the temple which he is visiting regularly, the moment he passes through that way.
FACTORS INFLUENCING/AROUSING ATTENTION:
The factors have
been broadly classified as two categories viz.
1. External factors
2. Internal factors
Shifting away attention is called the distraction of attention. It is sort interference with the process of attending to an object. Loud sound, movement of people, brightness or dullness of light, etc. may cause distraction of attention in reading.
Causes of Distraction of Attention:
The causes of distraction of attention are the temperament of the individual and outside conditions of work like temperature, noise, unfavorable temperature, improper light arrangements, worries are some of the causes of distractions.
To overcome distraction, two things can be done:
1. Avoid distraction-stimulus. 2. Become habituated to distraction.
In the beginning the distraction is individual decides to undermine it, hence, it becomes less and less effective and some sort of accommodation takes place.
Why to overcome distraction in teaching learning process?
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION
OF ATTENTION:
1.
It is a necessary condition for any mental task in
the classroom.
2.
It is the “hub” of entire teaching-learning process
3.
It provides a mental set or state of preparedness or
state of alertness for a task to the teacher as well as to the learner.
4.
Teacher should make the students to learn as to how
attention could be secured and create such situations, which make the learner
to be attentive.
5.
It increases efficiency, helps in remembering &
it arouses interest and there by motivates the student.
MEMORY/REMEMBERING
Ø
Memory is the function of mind by virtue of
which it records, retains and produces ideas gained by its own activity.
Ø
Remembering is a process. Whenever we use
the word ‘Memory” we should bear in the mind that it refers to the ‘Process of
Remembering’.
*Memory is the power to remember or recollects
our experiences which have made impressions of some sort on our nerves and
mind.
* It is a process where present mental
activity has reference to something that has taken place in the past. Even
though remembering is a new experience in itself is based on the part
experience. It is perhaps equivalent to retentiveness or the ability to retain
and recall.
* Memory is the function of the mind by virtue
of which it records, retains and produces ideas gained past experiences into a
state of consciousness and makes in living.
1. According to Dexter and Garlic, “When the
mind acts in such a way that it records, retains and restores ideas gained by
its own activity, it is said to perform an act of memory.”
2. Adam has defines memory as “A memory as a
learned capacity for responding and its persistence over time is measured by
the retention test.”
3. Wood Worth defines memory as “the direct
use of the learned thing is memory.”
4. According to F.S.Rose, “A memory is new experience
determined by the disposition laid down by previous experiences the relation
between two being clearly apprehended.”
Stages of
Memory: Memory involves four factors namely,
1.
Registration. 2. Retention. 3. Recall and 4.
Recognition.
1. Registration: It is the
first stage of memory. It is also called learning. If the material is learnt
properly and efficiently it will be retained for a long time and can be
recalled easily. If learning is weak, recall is difficult and not so vivid
(clear).
For good registration, learning material should be meaningful to
students. Good learning depends upon various conditions such as attitude,
interest, motives type of material, method of learning etc.
2. Retention: Retention
depends upon the method of learning. It is the time between the learning and
recall. It is an inactive stage. It brings change in memory. As long as the
memory traces exist, it can be recalled when the learner is interested in a
learning activity, he concentrates his mental energy more on it and it leads to
better learning, intern, results in better retention. According to James, the
power of retention is an innate capacity. Things which are used time to time
are retained for a longer time.
3. Recall: It refers to reviving experiences that
are retained in the mind. It depends upon the retention. The will power and
interest are, two important factors that facilitate recall. The more recent the
learning, the easier it is to recall. If the learner has experienced pleasure
at the time of learning he recalls it more quickly. On the other hand, if he is
emotionally disturbed at the time of learning, he will not be able to recall.
There are two types of recall,
a)
Spontaneous
Recall: It is that where not effort is made to recall. It does not tax
the mind of the person.
b)
Deliberate
Recall: It is that where the person makes a deliberate effort to recall.
4. Recognition: It is
identification of objects and places which are recalled by us. This is easier
than recall. There can be recognition without recall. We can recognize the
person without knowing his name. It is less strenuous and simpler than recall.
All the
above mentioned stages of memory are important in their own places are directly
related to memory. So a good memory depends on an efficient learning, long
retention. Quick recall and rapid recognition. Even one factor is not
efficient, the whole memory is affected. So, that teacher should take steps to
see that the student registers the learning material well retains it for a long
time and recalls and recognizes it easily.
The
different types of Memory:
1.
Sensory Memory.
2.
Short Term Memory (Immediate memory)
3.
Long Term Memory (Permanent Memory)
4.
Rote Memory.
5.
Logical Memory.
6.
Associative Memory.
7.
Active Memory.
8.
Passive Memory.
1.
Sensory
Memory: This is the simplest and the most elementary form of memory. Immediately
after we experience something our sensory system retains for a brief moment an
image of the stimulus remains for only a fraction of a second. This process of
retention of the sensory stimulus is called sensory memory.
2.
Short Term
Memory (S.T.M): What we remember only for a short time is
called short term memory.
E.g. we look
up a telephone number from the directory and remember it. But after making
telephone, we usually forget it.
3. Long Term Memory (L.T.M): Under
long term memory, it is possible to remember a thing permanently. Remembering
of our name is the simplest example. It may or may not involve understanding
and insight.
4. Rote
Memory: Under rote memory, the things are learnt without understanding
their meaning. Some students have a good rote memory. They can mug up the
material and reproduce it at the time of examination. Although rote memory can
serve the purpose well when it is needed to remember a thing for the time being
and for a specific purpose.
5.Logical
Memory: Logical memory is based on logical thinking. It takes into
consideration the purposeful and insightful learning. Here instead of
mechanical memorization, the learner tries to understand what he learns and why
he learns.
6.
Associative memory: The
individual having this type of memory is able to associate the previously
learned things with so many related things and then establish multiple
connections. It demands that the learning or memorization of a particular thing
should not be done in isolation. We must try to connect or associate it with as
many other things as we can. It will help our memory to maintain multiple
relationships.
7. Active
memory: In active memory, one has
to remain active or make deliberate attempts for recollecting past experience.
In answering the question in examination hall we are required make use of this
type of memory.
8. Passive
memory: In passive memory, the past
experiences are recalled spontaneously without any serious attempt or will. For
example when somebody comes from our native village the mere sight of him is
enough to remind us about our fields, neighbours and other so many related
things.
Difference between Short-term memory and Long-term memory
|
SHORT TERM MEMORY |
LONG TERKM MEMORY: |
|
1. If the
information is recalled from brain from short term storage is short term
memory. |
1. If the
information is recalled from long term storge of brain,it is called long-term
memory. |
|
2. This is
temporary memory. |
2. This is
permanent memory. |
|
3.Eg: Theatre
seat number, bus number. |
3. Eg: Date of
birth, parents name etc. |
|
4. Recalling
takes more time. |
4. Recalling
takes less time. |
Factors
influencing Remembering:
There are certain signs
of good memory. He can recall his experience rapidly. He can recollect the
particulars of an accident that took place long ago without having thought over
it even once. He does not struggle to recall the details.
The factors that
emphasis a person to develop good memory is good health, attention, clear
impressions and repetitions.
1.
Good health ensures retentively. Mental
vicour, absence of fatigue and fresh air enable a person to remember better.
Poor health reduces the power of retentiveness.
2.
If we do not study with interest and
concentration, we can neither acquire much nor retain anything longer. If we
have studied anything attentively, our power of attention is better.
3.
If impressions are vivid and clear, they are
remembered longer. If we read or hear anything frequently. We it for a long
time. Hence repetition aids memory. But repetition should be frequent and
recent.
4.
If pupils have active participated in the
process of teaching and learning, they are likely to recall later on what they
have learnt.
5.
We remember things in which we are interested.
We generally remember things which give us pleasure and satisfaction.
E.g: We always remember the compliments that
we have achieved in an enterprise and the humiliation or insult that we have
suffered at the hands of others.
6. Where there is strong link or association
between one experience and another, the chances of
recalls are
better. That is why the teacher is expected to link up new knowledge with
the
Previous
Knowledge of pupils.
7. When we learn anything with a purpose and a
firm determination, it is strengths our ability to recall.
E.g:
Some persons remember well that they see. Some remember better what they hear.
Some remember the spelling of a word better if they have actually written it.
Methods of
Memorising:
1. Meaningful learning v/s Rote learning:
Rote
learning is mechanical in nature. It may not be possible to recall the value of
17X8 instantly but some of the nursery rhymes and poems are still remember
because these were meaningful literally, lyrically and musically.
2. Speed v/s Massed learning:
It
has been shown by experimental research that spaced learning, is more
beneficial than massed learning. The most efficient way of spacing study
session depends on the nature of the material and the maturity of the learner.
For young children shorter study periods are effective. It has been found that
when interest and motivation are high and the material is easy and meaningful.
Massed learning may become useful. Long periods of study may be recommended for
bright students.
3. Whole v/s Part Method:
There are two methods of memorizing a thing, for example take a poem,
one is to lead the poem again and again from the beginning till the end as a
whole. This is called whole method of memorization. In the other method part
method the poem is divided into parts and each part is memorized separately.
State the
laws of Association:
Law of
Association: Association
may be described as a process in which two or more experiences or functions are
linked together in such a way that learning retention and reproduction of one
item will facilitate the learning, retention and reproduction of another item.
1. Law of Contiguity: According to this principle when two
or more items are associated in time or place the recall of the other.
E.g.: If you can recall the names of one river of
south India, say Cauvery, you will recall along with the names of other rivers
of the south-India.
2.
Law of Similarity:
If two or more things are there, the recall of one tend to facilitate
the recall of
the others.
Thus the name of Akbar brings to your mind the names of Shahajahan, Jahangir
etc.
as there is
similarity between them in the sense that they all belong to Moghul dynasty.
2.
Law of
Contrast: As in the case of
similarity, contrasting items appear together in the consciousness.
E.g.: If you recall the tallest teacher you
had together with that person you can recall the teachers who were very short.
Rose may lead you to recall Jasmine though the
colours of the two are contrasting.
SIGNS
OF GOOD MEMORY:
1.RAPIDITY:
Ø
How quickly the learner recalls within a very
short period (time) his past experiences is the Rapidity.
2. ACCURACY:
Ø
It implies the exactness with which a past
experience is recalled.
3. LENGTH OF TIME:
Ø
The time for which one can retain the past
experiences & recalls them accurately.
4. QUANTITY OF EXPERIENCE:
Ø
It depends on how much individual get
experiences.
5. PROMPTNESS:
Ø
It implies the ease and spontaneity with which
experience is recalled.
6. SERVICEABLENESS:
Ø
It implies the recall of right experience, at
the right time, at the right place and in the right manner.
MEMORY DEVELOPMNENT OR IMPROVING
MEMORY OF THE LEARNERS:
q
The learner’s memory/remembering capacity can
be improved, if the learners follow these criteria’s: -
1.Will to learn:
Ø
It enhances interest & motivation, which
leads to better retention.
2. Interest and Attention:
Ø
First pay attention to learning interest in that
topic/subject develops.
3. Follow the principle of Association:
4. Follow the law of
exercise and Intelligent repetition.
5. Use of Modern technology:
Ø
Use of various variety of aids in teaching
learning situations.
6. Use of progressive methods of teaching and learning:
7. Adopting proper methods of memorization:
Helping students to remember
better:
1. Interest:
Ø
Interest in the subject is the mother of
attention.
2. Attention:
Ø
Teacher should ensure attention by preparing the
calss before presenting the subject matter.
3. Motivation:
Ø
Motivation creates interest, produces right
condition for learning.
4. Learning:
Ø
Proper method of learning for retentive memory.
E g: Whole to part, spaced , unspaced, Recitation.
5. Association:
Ø
Connecting present learning, past learning and
other related things.
Educational
Implications of Memory:
1.
Teachers should give prominence to sight,
sound and muscular activities while teaching. Pupils should be allowed to
memorise only what they have understand motivation is necessary for memory.
2.
Pupils should be advised to learn by heart
only what is essential. Teachers should emphasize that pupils should
attentively listen to what is to be learnt and observe with attention.
3.
What is to be taught should be presented
logically. Teachers should suggest to their pupils that when they have to
memorise any lesson, it should be done by wholes instead of by parts.
Repetition is also necessary for memory. All the material to be memorized
should be learnt by heart at intervals and not at a stretch.
4.
It is easier to learn heart what is meaningful
that what does not make any sense.
5.
The rhythm and rhymes also aid memorization.
It is easier to memorise a meaningful passage than stray words.
6.
Pupils should be advised to close the book and
test themselves how far they have been able to learn by heart a poem or a
passage.
7.
For the purpose oral reading provides direct
experience to the eye and the ear and thus leads to good memorization.
Differences between Short-term memory and Long-term memory
8.
Memorization is more suitable for children
than for the grown up.
1. Short-term memory is viewed as a rapidly decaying system. Most psychologists believe that short-term memory does not involve permanent changes in the brain. However, some temporary changes occur in this case. The physiological nature of the traces is such that they fade quickly. The long-term memory appears to be permanent. A permanent change occurs in our brain when we remember things for a longtime. Long-term memory has a more or less enduring impression on the brain. Because of the consolidation of traces, the traces are relatively permanent.
2. Short-term memory has limited storage capacity resistant to overcrowding in any form. It just cannot take any overload. On the other hand, long-term memory is limitless for all practical purposes. Any information transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory will have a place for permanent storage.
3. Short-term memory is an active system involving rehearsal. We need to keep the items actively in STM relearning them constantly. On the other hand, the long-term memory is rather passive in nature; it is not easily disturbed by interruption, unlike short-term memory.
4. Long-term memory differs from short-term memory in the kind of information that is most easily stored. Information is usually stored in short-term memory in terms of the physical qualities of the experience (what we see, do, taste, touch, hear etc.) with a special emphasis on acoustic (sense of hearing) codes. Although sensory memories can be stored in long-term memory, information is primarily stored in LTM in terms of its meaning or semantic codes.
5. There is a difference between long-term memory and short-term memory in the process of recall. When we are looking for a bit of information in STM we scan the entire contents of this store. But as the amount of information stored in long-term memory is lost, we cannot scan the entire contents of the LTM when we are looking for a bit of information. We use a cue relevant to the information we need and retrieve only that information instead of the entire contents of LTM.
6. Short-term memory also differs from long-term memory in the way forgetting occurs. Short-term memory is characterized by trace dependent forgetting. If information is not rehearsed or processed immediately, then the memory transformed by the information fades rapidly and the item is permanently lost or completely erased from the memory, in contrast, long-term memory is characterized by cue dependent forgetting. The information is permanently recorded in LTM but our ability to retrieve it depends upon having the appropriate cues
7. The different stages of memory are handled by different parts of the brain. Short-term memory is primarily a function of the frontal lobe ofthe cerebral context, while information that is stored in long-term memory. is first held in the hippocampus and then transferred to the areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and perception for permanent storage.
There is no universal acceptance of a distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory. However, clinical evidence from patients suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome (where chronic alcoholism produces both retrograde anterograde amnesia) or from severe head injury shows that short term memory in such occasions is severely impaired while the long-term memory remains intact.
It is to be remembered that even though short-term memory and long-term memory are conceptually different from one another, they are highly interdependent. Rehearsal in STM leads to memories in LTM and LTM is necessary STM encoding.
