Thinking skills
Introduction:
Man is a rational
animal. His rationality consists in his ability to think and reason for
successful living. All inventions, discoveries, art literature and advances in
culture and civilizations are based on the capacity of thinking, reasoning and
problem solving.
Thinking skills are
the mental processes we use to do thing, such as solve problems, make
decisions, ask questions, make plans, pass judgments, organize information and
create new ideas. Often we’re not aware of our thinking – it happens
automatically – but if we take time to ponder what’s going on then we can
become more efficient and more creative with our minds.
Generally speaking, the
term is understood to mean the skill or ability to maintain relations with
other human beings, to get ones work done etc, but it is desirable to arrive at
some scientific definitions which may be universally said.
1)
J.S. Ross: “Thinking is a mental activity in
its cognitive aspect”.
2)
J P Guilford: “Thinking is symbolic behavior,
for all thinking deals with substitute for things”
3)
Collins and James Drever: Thinking may be
described as the conscious adjustment of an organism to situation described in
this way. Thinking may obviously take place at all levels of mental life,
perceptual, ideational and conceptual.
Thinking opens a new vista, the object of thinking may be to
search or it may be invention. Thinking comprehends both foresight and
hindsight and where indulging in thinking, the individual reflects also upon
future possibilities.
Tools of Thinking: Thinking
may be classified in the following categories:
Thinking: i) Perceptual ii) Imaginative iii) Conceptual IV) Logical
i)
Perceptual
Thinking: This type of thinking makes use of sensation and perception.
Here we use previous experiences, Eg- A student has been punished by his
teacher for some wrong thing. Now whenever the student sees the teacher he
recollects and think that very incident. This is lower order thinking which is
present in animals also.
ii)
Imaginative
Thinking: When we imagine we are taken beyond the realm of personal
experiences. The materials of our imagination are recalled experiences, but our
imagination differs from other kinds of thinking. Imagination involves the
constructing of elements derived from past experiences. It is quite difficult
to draw a sharp line between memory and imagination. When past events are
recalled, there are usually elements which do not confirm to the original
event. In recalled facts, either something is added or subtracted from the
original act. We call experiences as memories, but actually recalled facts are
not the exact replica of the event experienced.
iii)
Conceptual Thinking: Here we use concepts for our thinking.
Concepts are formed with the help of observation, analysis, comparison,
classification and mental unification. In this thinking the individual reaches
to definite conclusions while keeping in view the future.
iv)
Logical
Thinking: This is the highest form of thinking. In this type of thinking,
the individual makes use of various concepts with a definite aim min view and
links them together in a logical order.
In thinking we employ percept, images,
concepts, symbols, formula as the five important tools.
Percept: They
stimulate thinking. For eg: If we see a person doing a wrong thing then this
perception will set us thinking in order to avoid the person from doing the
act.
Image: It is a
kind of symbol post experiences of a person move around in a persons mind in
the form of images.
Concept: These
are the abstract form of past experiences. Humanity is the quality of the
humans. The concept of Humanity cannot be formed without the perception of
human beings.
Symbols: concepts
are made use in thinking mainly with the help of symbols which represent our
thoughts in a very understanding way. Whenever our thought turns towards Human
beings our mind thinks of a general figure, not of a particular person. For eg:
The sound of a horn may be of the Ambulance, police or a VIP vehicle. This use
of sound makes us imagine thereby saving time and energy.
Formula: Other
than the use of symbols and signs, formula also results in economy of time and
energy. For eg: H2o means water is obtained by combining 2 particles of
hydrogen and 1 particle of oxygen, which in turns makes us think.
Problem
Solving: In fact, the object of thinking is to solve a problem or to find
out ways for its solution. A certain problem is solved based on our past
experiences. With the help of language we think about the problem in our mind.
The problems are also discussed with other people with the use of language.
Lateral
thinking: Lateral thinking is solving problems through an indirect and
creative approach, using reasoning that is not immediately obvious and
involving ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional
step-by-step logic.
Lateral thinking is more concerned
with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person uses lateral thinking
to move from one known idea to creating new ideas. Four types of thinking tools
have been identified:
1.
Idea-generating tools intended to break
current thinking patterns , routine patterns.
2.
Focus tools intended to broaden where to
search for new ideas
3.
Harvest tools intended to ensure more value is
received from idea generating output.
4.
Treatment tools that promote consideration of
real – world constraints, resources and support.
Influencing factors of thinking:
Many
factors have impact upon thinking. The following are the important influencing
factors.
1.
Strong
motivation: In the absence of motivation strong and systemic thinking is not
possible. Thinking is a process whereby the individual seeks a solution to some
problem and hence the stronger the motivation for solving a particular problem,
the stronger will be the thought process for seeking it.
2.
Interest and application: Both the
tools favour significant contribution to the solution of the problem we seek to
overcome. As soon as a problem presents itself, the interest and application
begin to operate of their own accord. The sentiment of self-expression or
self-exhibition also helps in solving the problem. We work with greater
application in solving problems which are closely related to the subject which
interests us. Authoritative is not possible when the subject is such that the
topic is neither interesting to us or we pay subject which interests us.
Authoritative is not possible when the subject is such that the topic is nether
interesting to us or we pay attention.
3.
Alertness
and flexibility: Arouse our annoyance towards dogmatic
thoughts and unsuccessful modes of action thereby making us capable of
employing more suitable and novel symbolic techniques in solving our problems.
This favours valid thinking as they serve to keep external faults from
contaminating our thinking. Flexibility keeps mind free from conservations and
blind beliefs.
4.
Time
constraint: Thinking involves time. Since time is spent while the thought
process goes on. If a problem is being solved the time limit available should
not be too rigid. When thinking on subjects which do not arouse our interest,
the limit of time should not be rigid at all. This curtails outside the box
thinking for better results.
5.
Wide range
of wisdom and intelligence: Thinking needs insight and
foresight. A proper development of the facilities of the mind is essential for
the mind to solve issues. Some scholars have identified intelligence and the
process of thinking as one and the same, but intelligence is the pre-requisite
of thinking. More intelligent people can indulge in thinking with greater
success.
6.
Incubation: One
another factor which favours thinking is incubation. If a solution to a problem
is not derived in spite of persistent effort. Then such a problem should be
kept aside for some time and the individual should engage oneself in some other
activity. Then the solution for it comes after some time or at least an opinion
is being created when taken up again. The success of incubation depends upon
the previous labour you have devoted to the problem and the level of
motivation. Incubation cannot be used to avoid work upon the problem and it is
not a substitute for factual information, we will hatch nothing if there is no
thinking already there to incubate rational.
7.
Absence of
emotion: Thinking cannot take place in a state of emotional excitation.
For instance, moments of heightened anger fear or live, it is not possible to
think. Even if some thinking is done in such a state it tends to be prejudiced
rather than impartial and rational.
8.
Impact of
superstition: Pure thinking must necessarily be free from
the influence of superstitions, past experiences and prejudices. The reason is
that prejudices distort thinking. For instance, we never perceive the
shortcomings of an adored person.
9.
Concepts: Thinking
is also impossible in the absence of concept formation. A concept means
complete knowledge of an object and the development or growth of a concept
takes place through direct experience of objects.
10.
Contact
with society: Now days, thinking are coming to be regarded
as a social process. It is in society that language and linguistic ability
develop and it is in society alone that the child’s concepts are formed.
11.
Knowledge
of language: Thinking cannot evolve in the absence of
language because if a child does not know the language he cannot give
expression of his thoughts. Language has the following purposes:
·
It helps in removing tension in a person by
sharing his thoughts with others.
·
Knowledge cannot be obtained without language.
The reasoning, arguing and describing are only possible using language.
·
Sometimes, language may mislead thinking.
Language not doubt helps in thinking, but it may mislead in the sense that a
person may use the phraseology without having any idea about the meaning which
would not mirror his inner feelings.
KINDS
OF THINKING
Thinking may be of many kinds, such
as, reveries (Absent minded), controlled association, reasoning, conceptual thinking, imagination,
day-dreams, night-dreams, creative thought and so on.
These
various kinds of thinking are not separate and distinct but grade into one
another.
Thinking may vary in at least two
important ways:
i)
In the kind and
amount of control of the process by the thinking individual and
ii)
In the degree
of correspondence between the original experience and the representation of that
experience in the thought.
1. Reverie (Absent minded):
A state of imagining or thinking about pleasant
things, which is like dreaming.
A state of being pleasantly lost
in one's thoughts; a daydream.
"A knock on the door broke
her reverie"
2. Controlled association:
1. A direct connection of relevant ideas that results from a specific stimulus.
2 Also called word
association. a process of drawing repressed ideas into the consciousness in response
towards spoken by a psychoanalyst.
3. Reasoning:
Reasoning
is that form of thinking which occurs when the individual is confronted with a
problem that demands a solution or requires some adjustment. By a problem, we
understand a situation for which the individuals have no ready-made response.
When there is a
well-defined problem before the mind which seeks solution, the reasoning is
known as reflective thinking.
The procedure of
overcoming difficulties or problems which interfere with the satisfaction of
wants is called problem-solving. The nature of the procedure of problem solving
varies with the difficulty of the problem and its relation to the ability of
the learner.
Besides
human-beings animals also are faced occasionally with problems. They also try
to solve them but their method of attack is that of trial and error.
REASONING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING ON
THE HUMAN LEVEL
Reasoning is much like trial and error
behavior; instead of motor exploration, it is mental exploration. It thus saves
time and effort. “Reasoning is, therefore, a highly purposeful, controlled,
selective, thinking process, the material of which is predominantly factual
reproduction of past experience. “ Reasoning and learning are closely related,
both being methods of solving problems, learning usually resulting from the
process of reasoning.
The reasoning ability develops gradually.
It does not appear suddenly. Children can solve problems even at their
pre-school level. But the difference between their ability to reason and that
of an adult are as follows:
i)
An
adult can discover solution more rapidly and with fewer errors:
ii)
An
adult will be more systematic and exploration in the formulation and evaluation
of hypothesis:
iii)
He
can make more adequate generalization.
Thus the
differences between an adult’s and child’s method of solving problems is of
degree and not kind.
4. Conceptual thinking:
Conceptual thinking is the ability to understand a situation or problem by identifying
patterns or connections, and addressing key underlying issues. Conceptual thinking includes the integration of issues and
factors into a conceptual framework
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Conceptual Thinking is the ability to identify patterns
or connections between situations that are not obviously related, and to
identify key or underlying issues in complex situations. It includes using creative, conceptual or
inductive reasoning or thought processes that are not necessarily categorized
by linear thinking.
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Behavioural
Level
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Interpretive
Guide
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Level Observed
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1.
Uses Basic Rules:
-
Uses simple rules, common
sense, and past experiences to identify problems.
-
Recognizes when a current
situation is exactly the same as a past situation.
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Did
the candidate demonstrate the ability to use basic concepts in identifying
and solving problems? Did the candidate use previous experience to understand
a situation?
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2.
Sees Patterns:
-
When looking at
information, sees patterns, trends, or missing pieces.
-
Notices when a current
situation is similar to a past situation, and identifies the similarities.
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Did
the candidate use analogies to identify patterns or problems? Did the candidate use past experience to
think through a current situation and see patterns?
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3.
Applies Complex Concepts:
-
Uses knowledge of theory
or of different past trends or situations to look at current situations.
-
Applies and modifies
complex learned concepts or methods appropriately; e.g., statistical process
control, TQM, demographic analysis, managerial styles, organizational
climate, human behaviour, etc.
-
This is evidence of more
sophisticated pattern recognition.
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Did
the candidate provide evidence that a learned concept was appropriately
applied to solve a problem or clarify a situation? Did the candidate apply an
accepted concept in a modified way to solve a problem?
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4.
Clarifies Complex Data or Situations:
-
Makes complex ideas or
situations clear, simple, and/or understandable.
-
Assembles ideas, issues,
and observations into a clear and useful explanation.
-
Restates existing
observations or knowledge in a clearer fashion.
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Did
the candidate demonstrate an ability to clearly explain convoluted concepts
to a lay person? This can include
explaining unfamiliar complex concepts to the interviewer.
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5. Creates New
Concepts:
-
Creates new concepts that
are not obvious to others and not learned from previous education or
experience to explain situations or resolve problems.
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Did
the candidate demonstrate a new method of doing things in a truly new
fashion. To score at this level, the
candidate must provide clear evidence of concept creation (e.g. a new
accounting principle). This level is
very rarely seen.
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5.
Imagination:
“Imagination involves the construction of elements
derived from past experience into new wholes.”
It is quite
difficult to draw a sharp line between imagination and memory. When past events
are recalled in out mind there are usually elements which don not conform to
the original event. In recalled facts something else is either added to or
subtracted from therm.
Our
imagination depends on our personal experience. The elements of all imagination
must be from actual experience. The accumulated data of facts and experience is
responsible for richness of imagination.
Simple Definition of imagination
·
: the
ability to imagine things that are not real : the ability to form a picture in
your mind of something that you have not seen or experienced
·
: the
ability to think of new things
·
: something
that only exists or happens in your mind.
Full Definition of imagination
1.
1: the act or power of forming a mental image of something not present to the senses or never before
wholly perceived in reality
2.
2a : creative ability :
ability to confront and deal with a problem : resourcefulness <use your imagination and get us out of here>c : the thinking or active mind : interest <stories that fired the imagination>
3.
a creation of the mind; especially : an idealized or poetic creation
4.
fanciful or empty assumption
6.
Daydream
Daydreaming is a short-term detachment from one's
immediate surroundings, during which a person's contact with reality is blurred
and partially substituted by a visionary fantasy, especially one of happy,
pleasant thoughts, hopes or ambitions, imagined as coming to pass, and
experienced while awake.
There are many types of daydreams, and there is no
consistent definition amongst psychologists,
however the characteristic that is common to all forms of daydreaming meets the
criteria for mild dissociation.
7. Convergent thinking
This type of thinking is cognitive processing of
information around a common point, an attempt to bring thoughts from different directions
into a union or common conclusion.
8. Divergent thinking
This
type of thinking starts from a common point and moves outwards into a variety
of perspectives.
9. Inductive thinking:
This
is the process of reasoning from parts to the whole, from example to
generalizations.
10.
Creative thinking:
This is
divergent thinking. It generates something new or different. It involves having
a different idea that works as well or better than previous ideas.
A way
of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective that suggests unorthodox solutions (which may look unsettling at
first). Creative thinking can be stimulated both by an unstructured process such as brainstorming, and by a structured process such as lateral
thinking.
11.
Critical thinking
This is
convergent thinking. It assesses the worth and validity of something existent.
It involves precise, persistent, objective analysis. When teachers try to get
several learners to think convergently, they try to help them to develop common
understanding.
Developing
Critical Thinking in Students
It
is important to develop critical thinking in students. This skill set will help
them deal with everyday situations with greater ease and responsibility.
There
are many strategies that can be used to make students think
critically. Some of them are:
critically. Some of them are:
§ Classroom
Assessment Techniques
In
this technique, you let the student assess the lessons on an ongoing basis.
Posing questions like ‘What’s the most important you learnt from today’s
lesson’ will get into thinking critically.
§ Case
Study/ Discussion Method
Another
technique is to foster a discussion or present a case study in the classroom.
Do not present a conclusion. Let the students wander through the discussion or
case and think their way to a conclusion.
§ Conference
Style Learning
Another
strategy to develop critical thinking in students is for the teacher to avoid
“teaching” in class, but play the role of a facilitator in a conference, where
you guide the class along even as students are the ones who do the reading and
explaining. It is important that teachers’ do not misinterpret their role to be
passive but remain in control of the lesson while letting the students do the
thinking.
§ Writing
Assignments
Giving
your students broad writing assignments allows them to think through an issue.
Encourage them to reason and argue both sides of the issue.
§ Ambiguity
Being
a little ambiguous forces your students to think for themselves. Remember
though that there is a difference between being ambiguous and simply confusing
your students.
What
are some strategies that you can use to encourage critical thinking in your
classroom? Share your ideas.
How to Create and Develop a thinking
classroom”
Mike Fleetham writes: “In our evolving
world, the ability to think is fast becoming more desirable than any fixed set
of skills or knowledge. We need problem solvers, decision makers and
innovators. And to produce them, we need new ways to teach and learn. We need
to prepare our children for their future, not for our past.”
How can we teach Thinking skills?
There is evidence to suggest that
“Brain-gym”-type activities are a useful foundation for the development of
thinking skills. Such activities can be used with children from the early years
of schooling onwards. The activities described in the “Brain Bites” section of
this website are designed to encourage students to think in a diversity of
ways. Many of them call upon a number of the brain’s modules and are intended
to encourage lateral thinking.
One of the sub-goals of Feuersteins’s
Instrumental Enrichment Programme is to further the student’s acquisition of vocabulary, thus providing the
student with the verbal tools necessary for the analysis of internalized mental
processes. From the early years of primary school, teachers can do much to
encourage students to engage in a variety of talk-based activities that will
help to develop their thinking skills. As they become more proficient, thinkers
move from being merely “recipients” of information, to become “manipulators” and
“judges” of information, and ultimately to “discoverers” and “Creators” of new
information. This might also be identified as a progression from the past,
through the present and into the future.
Edward de Bono’s “Thinking habits” is a
simple but useful approach that can be used in the classroom to ensure that
issues are addressed from a variety of perspectives.
Although philosophy has traditionally been
regarded as an activity more suitable for older students, recently there has
been a move towards introducing philosophy into primary schools. Younger
children have a demonstrated that, with the right stimulus, they are capable of
posing philosophical questions and addressing a range of abstract issues.
It is, of course, useful to know each
student’s multiple intelligence profile. This can provide teachers with useful
knowledge about the best access routes to engagement for individual students.
Similarly,
it helps to know each student’s preferred (VAK,-Visual, Audio, Kinesthetic)
learning style. There is a brief questionnaire to help students discover their
preferred style. Students with a preference for processing information visually
are likely to benefit from learning how to mind map.
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