DISCOVERY LEARNING

 LEARNING

Learning

• Learning is the process of acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values

• The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements (Gardner Murphy)

Outcomes of learning

• Bringing desirable changes in behaviour

• Attaining of teaching-learning objectives

• Attaining proper growth and development

• Attaining balanced development of personality

• Attaining proper adjustment

• Realizing goals of life

 DISCOVERY LEARNING

Meaning and concept

       Discovery learning is a technique of inquiry-based learning and is considered a constructivist-based approach to education. It is also referred to as problem-based learning, experiential learning and 21st century learning. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert.

           Jerome Bruner is often credited with originating discovery learning in the 1960s, but his ideas are very similar to those of earlier writers such as John Dewey. Bruner argues that "Practice in discovering for oneself teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable in problem solving". This philosophy later became the discovery learning movement of the 1960s. The mantra of this philosophical movement suggests that we should 'learn by doing'.

       The label of discovery learning can cover a variety of instructional techniques. According to a meta-analytic review conducted by Alfieri, Brooks, Aldrich, and Tenenbaum (2011), a discovery learning task can range from implicit pattern detection, to the elicitation of explanations and working through manuals to conducting simulations. Discovery learning can occur whenever the student is not provided with an exact answer but rather the materials in order to find the answer themselves.

        Discovery learning takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge and is a method of instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.

Characteristics

Discovery-based learning is typically characterized by having

Ø  minimal teacher guidance,

Ø   fewer teacher explanations,

Ø  solving problems with multiple solutions,

Ø   use of hand-on materials,

Ø  minimal repetition and memorization.

 

          There are multiple essential components that are required for successful discovery-based learning which include the following:

ü  Teacher guidance where the emphasis is on building upon students’ reasoning and connecting to their experiences.

ü  Classroom culture where there is a shared sense of purpose between teacher and students, where open-mindedness and dialogue are encouraged.

ü  Students are encouraged to ask questions, inquire through exploration and collaborate with teacher and peers.

Teacher's role

        It has been suggested that effective teaching using discovery techniques requires teachers to do one or more of the following:

1) Provide guided tasks leveraging a variety of instructional techniques

2) Students should explain their own ideas and teachers should assess the accuracy of the   

     idea and provide feedback

3) Teachers should provide examples of how to complete the tasks.

      A critical success factor to discovery learning is that it must be teacher assisted. Discovery learning can also result in students becoming confused and frustrated.

         Mayer (2004) argued that pure unassisted discovery should be eliminated due to the lack of evidence that it improves learning outcomes. Even Bruner (1961) who was one of the early pioneers of discovery learning cautioned that discovery could not happen without some basic knowledge.

           In summary, the teachers’ role in discovery learning is critical to the success of learning outcomes. Students must build foundational knowledge through examples, practice and feedback. This can provide a foundation for students to integrate additional information and build upon problem solving and critical thinking skills.

Benefits

ü  Early research demonstrated that directed discovery had positive effects on retention of information at six weeks after instruction versus that of traditional direct instruction.

ü  It is believed that the outcome of discovery-based learning is the development of inquiring minds and the potential for life-long learning.

ü  Discovery learning promotes student exploration and collaboration with teachers and peers to solve problems. Children are also able to direct their own inquiry and be actively involved in the learning process which helps with student motivation.  

BRUNER’S THEORY OF LEARNING

JEROME S BRUNER

         Jerome Bruner, in full Jerome Seymour Bruner, (born October 1, 1915, New York, New York, U.S.—died June 5, 2016, New York, New York), American psychologist and educator who developed theories on perception, learning, memory, and other aspects of cognition in young children that had a strong influence on the American educational system and helped launch the field of cognitive psychology

Three Stages of Representation

Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation.

1. Enactive, which is the representation of knowledge through actions.

2. Iconic, which is the visual summarization of images.

3. Symbolic representation, which is the use of words and other symbols to describe experiences.

1. The enactive stage: This stage appears first. This stage involves the encoding and storage of information. There is a direct manipulation of objects without any internal representation of the objects.

• For example, a baby shakes a rattle and hears a noise. The baby has directly manipulated the rattle and the outcome was a pleasurable sound. In the future, the baby may shake his hand, even if there is no rattle, expecting his hand to produce the rattling sounds. The baby does not have an internal representation of the rattle and, therefore, does not understand that it needs the rattle in order to produce the sound.

• It involves encoding action-based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle.

• Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

2.The iconic stage: This stage appears from one to six years old. This stage involves an internal representation of external objects visually in the form of a mental image or icon. For example, a child drawing an image of a tree or thinking of an image of a tree would be representative of this stage. This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.

3.The symbolic stage:  The symbolic stage is from seven years and up, is when information is stored in the form of a code or symbol such as language. Each symbol has a fixed relation to something it represents. For example, the word 'dog' is a symbolic representation for a single class of animal. Symbols, unlike mental images or memorized actions, can be classified and organized. In this stage, most information is stored as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

         Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners.

           Bruner believed that all learning occurs through the stages we just discussed. Bruner also believed that learning should begin with direct manipulation of objects. For example, in math education, Bruner promoted the use of algebra tiles, coins, and other items that could be manipulated.

After a learner has the opportunity to directly manipulate the objects, they should be encouraged to construct visual representations, such as drawing a shape or a diagram

PRINCIPLES TO ASSESS QUALITY OF LEARNING (J. S. BRUNER)

1. PRINCIPLE OF DISCOVERY LEARNING

2. PRINCIPLE OF READINESS

        Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn. This is called "readiness" and many teachers recognize and acknowledge its value. It facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response.

         Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. (Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn) and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. In other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructor’s job.

Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn much. If they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, students may have little interest in learning.

3. PRINCIPLE OF SPIRAL ORGANIZATION

        Teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development. Student will not understand the concept if teacher plans to teach it using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learner’s cognitive capabilities.

In a Spiral Curriculum, teacher must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on students’ developmental levels.

In summary, an effective spiral curriculum (J.S. Bruner, 1960)

1. Begins with the basic and simple ideas that underlie that which is more complex.

2. Emphasizes the intuitive grasp of ideas and the use of those basic ideas in the early teaching of any subject.

3. Revisits the basic ideas repeatedly.

4. Enables continual deepening of understanding by facilitating the use of basic ideas in progressively more complex form

4. PRINCIPLE OF EXTRAPOLATION OR GOING BEYOND INFORMATION

          Instruction should be designed to help learners dig deeper or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given), by using a discovery learning approach.

Extrapolation may also mean extension of a method, assuming similar methods will be applicable. Extrapolation may also apply to human experience to project, extend, or expand known experience into an area not known or previously experienced.